Thesaurus to define land management practices in agriculture and forestry for soil carbon storage
Plant management
Authors Data4C+
Agricultural practices controlling the spatial and temporal arrangement of plants grown on the field. Plant management has an effect on carbon inputs, soil cover, litter quality, and hence is crucial for the understanding of soil carbon dynamic.
Plant residues management
Authors Data4C+; Li, Y., Shi, S., Waqas, M.A., Zhou, X., Li, J., Wan, Y., Qin, X., Gao, Q., Liu, S., Wilkes, A., 2018. Long-term (≥20 years) application of fertilisers and straw return enhances soil carbon storage: a meta-analysis. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 23, 603–619; Powlson, D.S., Riche, A.B., Coleman, K., Glendining, M.J., Whitmore, A.P., 2008. Carbon sequestration in European soils through straw incorporation: Limitations and alternatives. Waste Management, OECD Workshop - Soils and Waste Management: A Challenge to Climate Change 28, 741–746.
Management, especially type of the residue (burned/unburned residues, shredded) and localisation of the residues on surface (mulch or buried). The management of plant residues has an effect on soil carbon stocks (Li et al., 2018), but not necessarily on net soil carbon sequestration (Powlson et al., 2008).
Fertilisers and amendments management
FAO. 2019. International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of fertilisers. Rome; Li, Y., Shi, S., Waqas, M.A., Zhou, X., Li, J., Wan, Y., Qin, X., Gao, Q., Liu, S., Wilkes, A., 2018. Long-term (≥20 years) application of fertilisers and straw return enhances soil carbon storage: a meta-analysis. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change 23, 603–619; Maillard, É., Angers, D.A., 2014. Animal manure application and soil organic carbon stocks: a meta-analysis. Global Change Biology 20, 666–679.
Annual and perennial croplands could be fertilised or amended with various products produced on the same plot or not. Fertiliser refers to a chemical or natural substance or material that is used to provide nutrients to plants, usually via application to the soil, but also to foliage or through water in rice systems, fertigation or hydroponics or aquaculture operations. Thus, multiple nutrient types and sources are considered and include: chemical and mineral fertilisers; organic fertilisers such as livestock manures and composts; and sources of recycled nutrients such as wastewater, sewage sludge, digestates and other processed wastes (FAO, 2019). Fertilisation has generally a positive effect on soil carbon stocks (Li et al., 2018; Maillard Angers 2014).
Fire management
Authors Data4c+
The interventions regarding the prevention, control, and timing of fires in forests and wooded systems. Fire management may influence biomass production, hence carbon inputs, and the accumulation of pyrogenic carbon in the soils.
Tillage management
Adapted from Landmark glossary; Chenu, C., Angers, D.A., Barré, P., Derrien, D., Arrouays, D., Balesdent, J., 2019. Increasing organic stocks in agricultural soils: Knowledge gaps and potential innovations. Soil and Tillage Research, Soil Carbon and Climate Change: the 4 per Mille Initiative 188, 41–52.
Tillage is the mechanical cultivation of a soil profile for any purpose. Tillage can be performed to accomplish a number of tasks including: breaking compactions, incorporation of crop residues, manures, fertilisers or weeds, seedbed preparation, weed control. According to ecological, economic and cultural factor, tillage mangement is highly variable in the world (Adapted from Landmark glossary). Tillage influences the stratification of soil carbon and may lead to soil carbon stock increase in topsoil, but the overall effect on 0-30 cm depth or deeper is low or non-significant (Chenu et al. 2019).
Water management
Authors Data4C+; Emde, D., Hannam, K.D., Most, I., Nelson, L.M., Jones, M.D., 2021. Soil organic carbon in irrigated agricultural systems: A meta-analysis. Global Change Biology 27, 3898–3910.
Water management in annual and perennial croplands involves the management of water inputs through irrigation and water removals through drainage. Irrigation practices may increase soil carbon stocks (Emde et al. 2021).
Erosion control
Sanz, M.J., De Vente, J., Chotte, J.-L., Bernoux, M., Kust, G.S., Ruiz, I., Almagro, M., Alloza, J.-A., Vallejo, R., Castillo, V., 2017. Sustainable Land Management contribution to successful land-based climate change adaptation and mitigation. A Report of the Science-Policy Interface. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification United Nations (UNCCD), Bonn, Germany.
Soil erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion. Soil erosion, defined as the detachment, transportation and re-deposition of soil particles by wind or water, can be reduced or prevented by technologies that decrease both wind and runoff velocities (Sanz et al. 2017). Other land management practices listed in the thesaurus are also known to reduce soil erosion (e.g. cover crops, tillage reduction). At the field scale, erosion control practices prevent lateral soil carbon losses.
Land clearing management
Davidson, E.A., De Abreu Sà, T.D., Reis Carvalho, C.J., De Oliveira Figueiredo, R., Kato, M.S.A., Kato, O.R., Ishida, F.Y., 2008. An integrated greenhouse gas assessment of an alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture in eastern Amazonia. Global Change Biology 14, 998–1007.
Land clearing management refers to the practices of vegetation removal allowing the conversion of land into annual or perennial croplands. Differences in land clearing management may lead to short-term soil carbon stocks variations and changes in greenhouse gases balance (Davidson et al. 2008).
Conventional agriculture
Conventional agriculture is usually defined in opposition to alternative agriculture systems, as e.g. the non-organic agriculture or the non-agriculture of conservation. The conventional agriculture term gathers numerous different form of agricultural systems, from the most industrial monocultures to traditional agriculture with few crop residues restitution and tillage weeding but no use of synthetic inputs. Conventional agriculture is often used as a control treatment to compare to alternative pratices. It is what is accepted as the norm, the most dominant agricultural practice.
Organic agriculture
Landmark glossary
Agricultural production which typically places a higher emphasis on environmental and wildlife protection and, with regard to livestock production, on measures that are supposedly animal welfare friendly. Organic production aims at more holistic production management systems for crops and livestock, emphasizing on-farm management practices over off-farm inputs. This involves avoiding, or largely reducing, the use of synthetic chemicals such as inorganic fertilisers, pesticides, medicinal products, replacing them, wherever possible, with cultural, biological and mechanical methods. Organic producers explicitly aim to develop an allegedly healthier, fertile soil by growing and rotating a mixture of crops and using leguminous crops to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. The production of genetically-modified (GM) crops and their use in animal feed is banned. In the context of European Union (EU) statistics, farming is considered to be organic if it complies with Regulation 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products. The detailed rules for the implementation of this Regulation are laid down in Regulation 889/2008.
Conservation agriculture
FAO website
Conservation Agriculture is based on three main principles adapted to reflect local conditions and needs: - Minimum mechanical soil disturbance: Minimum soil disturbance refers to low disturbance no-tillage and direct seeding. The disturbed area must be less than 15 cm wide or less than 25% of the cropped area (whichever is lower). There should be no periodic tillage that disturbs a greater area than the aforementioned limits. Strip tillage is allowed if the disturbed area is less than the set limits. - Permanent soil organic cover: Three categories are distinguished: 30-60%, >60-90% and >90% ground cover, measured immediately after the direct seeding operation. Area with less than 30% cover is not considered as CA. - Species diversification: Rotation/association should involve at least 3 different crops. However, repetitive wheat, maize, or rice cropping is not an exclusion factor for the purpose of this data collection, but rotation/association is recorded where practiced.
Soil conservation
FAO, 2015. World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020. Volume 1 Programme, Concepts and Definitions. FAO, Rome.
Soil conservation is a sustainable practice to prevent and reverse the degradation of soil through appropriate land use and management practices. It is defined as activities to maintain or enhance the productive capacity of the land in areas affected by or prone to degradation, including prevention and reduction of soil erosion, compaction and salinity, conservation or drainage of soil water, and maintenance or improvement of soil fertility.
Integrated soil fertility management
Vanlauwe, B., Bationo, A., Chianu, J., Giller, K.E., Merckx, R., Mokwunye, U., Ohiokpehai, O., Pypers, P., Tabo, R., Shepherd, K.D., Smaling, E.M.A., Woomer, P.L., Sanginga, N., 2010. Integrated Soil Fertility Management: Operational Definition and Consequences for Implementation and Dissemination. Outlook Agric 39, 17–24.
Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is a set of soil fertility management practices that necessarily include the use of fertilizer, oranic inputs and improved germplasm, combined ith the knoledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions, aimed at maximizing agronomic use efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop productivity.
Integrated pest management
European Commission
Integrated pest management (IPM) means careful consideration of all available plant protection methods and subsequent integration of appropriate measures that discourage the development of populations of harmful organisms and keep the use of plant protection products and other forms of intervention to levels that are economically and ecologically justified and reduce or minimise risks to human health and the environment. 'Integrated pest management' emphasises the growth of a healthy crop with the least possible disruption to agro-ecosystems and encourages natural pest control mechanisms.
Sustainable Rice Intensification
McDonald, A.J., Hobbs, P.R., Riha, S.J., 2006. Does the system of rice intensification outperform conventional best management?: A synopsis of the empirical record. Field Crops Research 96, 31–36.
The main components include careful transplanting of young seedlings at wide spacings on a precise grid with only one seedling per hill, water management that keeps the soil moist but not continuously flooded, frequent (i.e. three to four times) manual or mechanical weeding before canopy closure, and reliance on high rates of organic compost for fertiliser.
Annual and perennial croplands
FAO and SEEA (System of Environmental-Economic Accounting 2012— Central Framework)
Land used for cultivation of crops. The total of areas under ''Arable land'' and ''Permanent crops'': "Arable land" = The total of areas under temporary crops, temporary meadows and pastures, and land with temporary fallow. Arable land does not include land that is potentially cultivable but is not normally cultivated. "Land under permanent crops" = Land cultivated with long-term crops which do not have to be replanted for several years (such as cocoa and coffee), land under trees and shrubs producing flowers (such as roses and jasmine), and nurseries (except those for forest trees, which should be classified under "Forestry"). Permanent meadows and pastures are excluded from land under permanent crops.
Agricultural practices controlling the spatial and temporal arrangement of herbaceous plants in pastures and grasslands. Plant management has an effect on carbon inputs, litter and root quality, and hence is crucial for the understanding of soil carbon dynamic.
Biomass management
The management of the plant biomass produced in pastures and grasslands Biomass management has an effect on carbon inputs and hence on soil carbon dynamic.
The interventions regarding the prevention, control, and timing of fires in agroecosystems. Fire management may influence biomass production, hence carbon inputs, and the accumulation of pyrogenic carbon in the soils.
Fertilisers and amendments
FAO. 2019. International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of fertilisers. Rome. Poeplau, C., Zopf, D., Greiner, B., Geerts, R., Korvaar, H., Thumm, U., Don, A., Heidkamp, A., Flessa, H., 2018. Why does mineral fertilisation increase soil carbon stocks in temperate grasslands? Agriculture, Ecosystems Environment 265, 144–155.
Grasslands and pastures could be fertilised or amended with various products produced on the same plot or not. Fertiliser refers to a chemical or natural substance or material that is used to provide nutrients to plants, usually via application to the soil, but also to foliage or through fertigation, or hydroponics or aquaculture operations. Thus, multiple nutrient types and sources are considered and include: chemical and mineral fertilisers; organic fertilisers such as livestock manures and composts; and sources of recycled nutrients such as wastewater, sewage sludge, digestates and other processed wastes (FAO, 2019). Fertilisation has generally a positive effect on soil carbon stocks (Poeplau et al., 2018).
Land clearing management refers to the practices of vegetation removal allowing the conversion of land into grasslands. Differences in land clearing management may lead to short-term soil carbon stocks variations and changes in greenhouse gases balance (Davidson et al. 2008)
Grasslands and pastures
Land used permanently (five years or more) to grow herbaceous forage crops through cultivation or naturally (wild prairie or grazing land). Permanent meadows and pastures on which trees and shrubs are grown should be recorded under this heading only if the growing of forage crops is the most important use of the area. Measures may be taken to keep or increase productivity of the land (i.e., use of fertilisers, mowing or systematic grazing by domestic animals).
Forests, forest plantations and other wooded lands
Include : - Forest land : Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. Includes natural forest (a forest composed of indigenous trees) and forest plantation (a forest established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. It consists of introduced species, or in some cases, indigenous species. Excludes land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use, and land that is predominantly used for maintenance and restoration of environmental function. - Other wooded land : Land not classified as “Forest land”, spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than 5 metres and a canopy cover of 5-10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ; or with a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 per cent.
Practices controlling the spatial and temporal arrangement of plants (including herbaceous) in forests and wooded lands. Plant management has an effect on carbon inputs, litter and root quality, and hence is crucial for the understanding of soil carbon dynamic.
The management of the biomass produced by the wooded system, through harvesting and removal of residues. Biomass management has an effect on carbon inputs and hence on soil carbon dynamic.
Animal management
Adapted from Mayer, M., Prescott, C.E., Abaker, W.E.A., Augusto, L., Cécillon, L., Ferreira, G.W.D., James, J., Jandl, R., Katzensteiner, K., Laclau, J.-P., Laganière, J., Nouvellon, Y., Paré, D., Stanturf, J.A., Vanguelova, E.I., Vesterdal, L., 2020. Tamm Review: Influence of forest management activities on soil organic carbon stocks: A knowledge synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management 466, 118127.
The management of the wild animals populations in forests, as well as the management of transhumant livestocks in open wooded lands, such as woody savannas or woody rangelands; may lead to soil carbon increase (Mayer et al., 2020).
FAO. 2019. International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of fertilisers. Rome. Mayer, M., Prescott, C.E., Abaker, W.E.A., Augusto, L., Cécillon, L., Ferreira, G.W.D., James, J., Jandl, R., Katzensteiner, K., Laclau, J.-P., Laganière, J., Nouvellon, Y., Paré, D., Stanturf, J.A., Vanguelova, E.I., Vesterdal, L., 2020. Tamm Review: Influence of forest management activities on soil organic carbon stocks: A knowledge synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management 466, 118127.
http://www.fao.org/3/ca5253en/ca5253en.pdf https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118127
Forests and tree plantations could be fertilised or amendend with various products produced on the same plot or not. fertiliser refers to a chemical or natural substance or material that is used to provide nutrients to plants, usually via application to the soil, but also to foliage, fertigation or hydroponics or aquaculture operations. Thus, multiple nutrient types and sources are considered and include: chemical and mineral fertilisers; organic fertilisers such as livestock manures and composts; and sources of recycled nutrients such as wastewater, sewage sludge, digestates and other processed wastes (FAO, 2019). Nitrogen deposition in forest has overall a positive effect on soil carbon stocks (Mayer et al., 2020).
Carter, M.R., 2005. CONSERVATION TILLAGE, in: Hillel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment. Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 306–311; Mayer, M., Prescott, C.E., Abaker, W.E.A., Augusto, L., Cécillon, L., Ferreira, G.W.D., James, J., Jandl, R., Katzensteiner, K., Laclau, J.-P., Laganière, J., Nouvellon, Y., Paré, D., Stanturf, J.A., Vanguelova, E.I., Vesterdal, L., 2020. Tamm Review: Influence of forest management activities on soil organic carbon stocks: A knowledge synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management 466, 118127.
The manipulation of the soil profile to modify soil conditions and to manipulate plant residues, and to control or remove unwanted plant growth (Carter, 2005). Soil disturbances in tree plantations can lead to short-term soil carbon losses, but theses losses might be offset by long-term increase in forest productivity hence soil carbon storage (Mayer et al. 2020).
Land clearing management refers to the practices of vegetation removal allowing the conversion of land into secondary forests or plantations Differences in land clearing management may lead to short-term soil carbon stocks variations and changes in greenhouse gases balance (Davidson et al. 2008).
Reduced Impact logging
Enters, T., Durst, P.B., Applegate, G.B., Kho, P.C., Man, G., 2002. Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance Sustainable Forest Management.
Reduced impact logging (RIL) technology is a collective term that refers to the use of scientific and engineering principles, in combination with education and training, to improve the application of labour, equipment and operating methods in the harvesting of industrial timber. Although it varies somewhat with the local situation, RIL in tropical forests generally requires the following (see, for example, Sist et al., 1998): - Pre-harvest inventory and mapping of individual crop trees. - Nearly all of these practices are common in temperate forests. Two that are not are the requirement for mapping individual crop trees, and the need for preharvest vine cutting - Conducting post-harvest assessments in order to provide feedback to the concession holder and logging crews and to evaluate the degree to which RIL guidelines were applied successfully. - Where feasible, utilizing yarding systems that protect soils and residual vegetation by suspending logs above the ground. - Winching logs to planned skidtrails and ensuring that skidding machines remain on the skidtrails at all times. - Construction of roads, landings and skidtrails so that they adhere to engineering and environmental design guidelines. -The use of appropriate felling and bucking techniques, including directional felling, cutting stumps low to the ground to avoid waste, and optimal crosscutting of tree stems into logs in a way that will maximize the recovery of useful wood. - Pre-harvest vine cutting in areas where vines bridge tree crowns. - Pre-harvest planning of roads, skidtrails and landings to provide access to the harvest area and to the individual trees scheduled for harvest while minimizing soil disturbance and protecting streams and waterways with appropriate crossings.
Monoculture
The growing of a single arable crop species on a field year after year, for at least 10 years.
Plant breeding
Bruins, M., 2009. The evolution and contribution of plant breeding to global agriculture, in: Proceedings of the Second World Seed Conference: Responding to the Challenges of a Changing World: The Role of New Plant Varieties and High Quality Seed in Agriculture. pp. 18–31.
Plant breeding could be considered to be changing the genetic make-up of plants for the benefit of humankind. More specifically, it is developing new varieties through the creation of new genetic diversity, by reassembling existing genetic diversity all with the aid of special techniques and technologies.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the growing of alternating species or families of crops in a specific field in a planned pattern or sequence so as to break weed, pest and disease cycles and to maintain or improve soil fertility and organic matter content.
Land with temporary fallow
Land temporarily fallow refers to arable land at prolonged rest before re-cultivation. This may be part of the holding’s crop rotation system or because the normal crop cannot be planted because of flood damage, lack of water, unavailability of inputs or other reasons.
Intercropping
Ofori, F., Stern, W.R., 1987. Cereal–Legume Intercropping Systems. Advances in Agronomy 41, 41–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60802-0
Intercropping is the growing of two or more crop species simultaneously in the same field during a growing season. Remark : Does not include agroforestry practices, which are covered separately in the thesaurus.
Agroforestry
Adapted from FAO, 2015. World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020. Volume 1 Programme, Concepts and Definitions. FAO, Rome.
Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system in which forest species of trees and other wooded plants are purposely grown on the same land as agricultural crops or livestock, either concurrently or in rotation.
Uncontrolled fire
FAO/GFMC, 1999. Revision of the FAO Wildland Fire Management Terminology.
Any fire which threatens to destroy life, property, or natural resources, and (a) is not burning within the confines of firebreaks, or (b) is burning with such intensity that it could not be readily extinguished with ordinary tools commonly available.
Cover crops in perennial croplands
McGourty, G.T., Reganold, J.P., 2005. Managing vineyard soil organic matter with cover crops, in: Proceedings of the Soil Environment and Vine Mineral Nutrition Symposium. Davis, CA.: American Society for Enology and Viticulture, pp. 145–151
A cover crop is any plant species usually grown in a mixture between vine rows (alleys).
Prescribed burning
Controlled application of fire to vegetation in either their natural or modified state, under specified environmental conditions which allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area or a predefined vegetation strata of the system, and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to attain planned resource management objectives (cf. Prescribed Fire). Note: This term has replaced the earlier term "Controlled Burning".
Crop residues management
Woody regrowths management
Management of the woody plants that spontaneously invade agricultural areas and may lead to woody encroachment.
Organic fertilisation
Eurostat glossary
Fertilisers derived from organic origin such as animal products (e.g. livestock manure, dried blood, hoof, and bone meal), plant residues or derived from human activities(e.g. sewage sludge). Organic fertilisers contain carbon (C) and nutrients of solely biological origin and exclude material which is fossilized or embedded in geological formations.
Mineral fertilisation
Fertilisers manufactured by a chemical/industrial process or mined as opposed to organic material that contains carbon. They are also called chemical fertilisers, artificial fertilisers or inorganic fertiliser.
Organo-mineral fertilisation
Organo-mineral fertilisers are obtained through blending or processing one or more organic materials with one or more mineral fertilisers to enhance their nutrient content and fertilising value. In this type of fertiliser the mineral nutrients are protected by the binding and adsorption of the organic component, leading to a gradual release of nutrients in the soil and to a reduction of nutrient losses. Organo-mineral fertilisation can also consist of mineral fertilisers combined with organic fertilisers. In this case, please refer to the definitions and associated quantitatives variables presented above.
Biochar
IBI, 2018. Frequently Asked Questions About Biochar: What is biochar? International Biochar Initiative (IBI) cited by IPCC, 2019. Annex I: Glossary, in: van Diemen, R. (Ed.), Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems.
Relatively stable, carbon-rich material produced by heating biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar is also distinguished from charcoal by its application: biochar is used as a soil amendment with the intention to improve soil functions and to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from biomass that would otherwise decompose rapidly.
Clay amendment
Adapted from Grover, S.P., Butterly, C.R., Wang, X., Gleeson, D.B., Macdonald, L.M., Hall, D., Tang, C., 2020. An agricultural practise with climate and food security benefits: “Claying” with kaolinitic clay subsoil decreased soil carbon priming and mineralisation in sandy cropping soils. Science of The Total Environment 709, 134488.
The addition of clay minerals to sandy soils.
Liming
Authors Data4C, adapted from Paradelo, R., Virto, I., Chenu, C., 2015. Net effect of liming on soil organic carbon stocks: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems Environment 202, 98–107.
Addition of calcium or calcium-magnesium amendments to the soil, such as calcium carbonate (lime), calcium-magnesium carbonate (dolomitic lime), calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide.
No-till
FAO, 2015. World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020. Volume 1 Programme, Concepts and Definitions. FAO, Rome
Zero tillage or no tillage does not involve any tillage operations on arable land. After the seeding operation, not more than 25 percent of the soil surface is allowed to be disturbed. The soils are always covered, including for the period between harvest and sowing. The stubble is retained and the soil surface is covered by residue mulch or stubble for erosion control.
Intermediate intensity tillage
Authors DATA4C+, modified after Haddaway et al. 2017. Haddaway, N.R., Hedlund, K., Jackson, L.E., Kätterer, T., Lugato, E., Thomsen, I.K., Jørgensen, H.B., Isberg, P.-E., 2017. How does tillage intensity affect soil organic carbon? A systematic review. Environmental Evidence 6, 30.
Any non-inversion tillage practice performed above 40 cm depth (e.g. chisel tillage, disk tillage, mulch tillage). These tillage practices are often referred as "Reduced tillage", "Minimum tillage", or "Conservation tillage"
High intensity tillage
Any inversion tillage practice (e.g. mouldboard ploughing), or any non-inversion tillage practice performed to 40 cm depth or below (e.g. subsoiling, very deep chisel or disk tillage). These tillage practices are often referred as "Conventionnal tillage" in the literature, and may be followed by a secondary tillage practice to prepare seedbed
Strip tillage
Strips are tilled to receive the seed while the soil along the intervening bands is not disturbed and remains covered with residues such as mulch.
Irrigation
Irrigation refers to purposely providing land with water, other than rain, for improving pastures or crop production. Irrigation usually implies the existence of infrastructure and equipment for applying water to crops, such as irrigation canals, pumps, sprinklers or localized watering systems. However, it also includes manual watering of plants using buckets, watering cans or other devices. Uncontrolled land flooding by overflowing of rivers or streams is not considered irrigation. Variate associated annual water from irriagation are expressed in m3/ha/year.
Drainage
For the purpose of the agricultural census, drainage means the artificial removal of excess surface water or groundwater – together with dissolved substances – from the land surface by means of surface or subsurface conduits, to enhance agricultural production. It does not include natural drainage of excess water into lakes, swamps and rivers.
Water management in paddy fields
Hussain, S., Peng, S., Fahad, S., Khaliq, A., Huang, J., Cui, K., Nie, L., 2015. Rice management interventions to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22, 3342–3360.
Water management in rice paddy fields involves the management of water table through the timing of irrigation and drainage of the fields, and has a strong effect on soil carbon dynamic and GHG emissions (e.g. Hussain et al. 2015).
Progressive bench terrasse
WOCAT glossary
Bench terraces are progressively expanded to form a fully developed terrace system in order to reduce runoff and soil erosion on medium- to high- angled loess slopes.
Rockwall terracing
Rockwall terracing refers to the piling of stones or rocks along contour lines to reduce soil erosion in hilly areas.
Zaï
Partey, S.T., Zougmoré, R.B., Ouédraogo, M., Campbell, B.M., 2018. Developing climate-smart agriculture to face climate variability in West Africa: Challenges and lessons learnt. Journal of Cleaner Production 187, 285–295.
Zai involves digging pits at 20-40 cm diameter and 10-15 cm depth to accumulate water before subsequent planting with or without the application of organic resources such as compost, plant residues and animal manure.
Semi-circular bunds or half moon
Semi-circular bunds are used to rehabilitate degraded, denuded and hardened land for crop growing, grazing or forestry. This technique involves building low embankments with compacted earth or stones in the form of a semi-circle with the opening perpendicular to the flow of water and arranged in staggered rows. They are constructed on gently to moderately sloping pediments and plateau areas in order to rehabilitate areas that are degraded, denuded and/or affected by soil crusting.
Soil bund with contour cultivation
It is a structural measure with an embankment of soil or stones or soil and stones, constructed along the contour and stabilized with vegetative measures (grass and fodder trees).
Traditional cut-off drain
Graded ditch out of soil and stones to protect the fields below from water runoff. It can be done across several land uses types.
Vegetated strips
Within individual cropland plots, strips of land are marked out on the contour and left un-ploughed in order to form permanent, cross-slope barriers of naturally established grasses and herbs.
Burning
Adapted from Courte, A., Cialdella, N., Muller, A., Blanfort, V., Bochu, J.-L., Brossard, M., 2020. Recenser et évaluer les pratiques agricoles qui stockent le carbone des sols, premier pas vers une agriculture à faible impact en Guyane. Cahiers Agricultures 29, 21.
Wood or weeds fully burnt on the plot.
Bulldozer
Mechanically timber scraping
Burning bulldozer
Combined use of the two clearing methods. Fire allows clearing of the underwood before the bulldozer passes through to lay down the remaining wood and proceed with the skidding.
Slash and burn
Palm, C., Vosti, S.A., Sanchez, P.A., Ericksen, P.J., 2005. Slash-and-burn agriculture: the search for alternatives. Columbia University Press
Slashing the forest with chainsaws, axes, and machetes and burning the felled vegetation after it has dried. Note that this definition does not refer to shifting cultivation, i.e. the cropping system of alternating fallow and cropping periods with slash and burn of the fallow growing vegetation.
Chop-and-mulch
Courte, A., Cialdella, N., Muller, A., Blanfort, V., Bochu, J.-L., Brossard, M., 2020. Recenser et évaluer les pratiques agricoles qui stockent le carbone des sols, premier pas vers une agriculture à faible impact en Guyane; Kato, M.S.A., Kato, O.R., Denich, M., Vlek, P.L.G., 1999. Fire-free alternatives to slash-and-burn for shifting cultivation in the eastern Amazon region: the role of fertilisers. Field Crops Research 62, 225–237.
The underwood and tree stumps are shredded to form a mulch before using light equipment to harvest trunks >20 cm in diameter.
Refers to the development of new plant varieties that offer benefits such as improved production, resistance to pests and diseases, or drought tolerance, in response to changing environmental conditions and land users’ needs.
Shredded
Adapted from Boulonne, L., 2011. DONESOL version 2.0.5. Dictionnaire de données pour les tables relatives aux données d’enquêtes agronomiques.
Minimal management of grassland through shredding aboveground biomass, without harvesting nor grazing.
Hayed
Haying grassland for fodder production.
Introduction of leguminous species
Introduction of plant species from the Fabaceae family.
Introduction of deep-rooted grasses
Introduction of deep-rooted grasses species.
Grazed
Grassland grazing by animals.
Hayed and grazed
Grassland hayed and grazed.
Fire exclusion
Planned (systematic) protection of an ecosystem from any wildfire, including any prescribed fire, by all means of fire prevention and suppression in order to obtain management objectives (cf. Fire Control).
Controlled application of fire to vegetation in either their natural or modified state, under specified environmental conditions which allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to attain planned resource management objectives (cf. Prescribed Fire). Note: This term has replaced the earlier term "Controlled Burning".
Herbivory regulation
The control of wild ungulates and livestock through exclusion perimeters or culling.
Fertilisers derived from organic origin such as animal products (e.g. livestock manure, dried blood, hoof, and bone meal), plant residues or derived from human activities (e.g. sewage sludge). Organic fertilisers contain carbon (C) and nutrients of solely biological origin and exclude material which is fossilized or embedded in geological formations.
Mix of fertilisation based on organic and mineral fertilisation.
Authors Data4c+, adapted from Paradelo, R., Virto, I., Chenu, C., 2015. Net effect of liming on soil organic carbon stocks: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems Environment 202, 98–107.
Stand management
Adapted from Yoshimoto, A., Asante, P., Konoshima, M., 2016. Stand-Level Forest Management Planning Approaches. Curr Forestry Rep 2, 163–176.
The regeneration scheme of the stand
Management of tree species diversity
The management of tree species diversity in a stand
Trees species selection
The selection of tree species according to their botanical group
Selection of species with N-fixing capacities
Introduction of Nitrogen Fixing Trees (NFT) or woody species known to support free-living N-fixers in soil
Harvesting
Dykstra, D.P., Heinrich, R., 1996. FAO model code of forest harvesting practice. FAO.
The aggregation of all operations, including pre-harvest planning and postharvest assessment, related to the felling of trees and the extraction of their stems or other usable parts from the forest for subsequent processing into industrial products. Also called timber harvesting
Fertilisers derived from organic origin such as animal products (e.g. livestock manure, dried blood, hoof and bone meal), plant residues or human origin (e.g. sewage sludge). Organic fertilisers contain carbon (C) and nutrients of solely biological origin and exclude material which is fossilized or embedded in geological formations.
Mole ploughing
Deep tillage realised with a subsoiler.
Ploughing
Full inversion tillage realised with a plough at 20-30 cm depth.
Surface tillage
Tillage realised at 15-20 cm depth with disc or shank cultivators, without inversion.
1. Courte, A., Cialdella, N., Muller, A., Blanfort, V., Bochu, J.-L., Brossard, M., 2020. Recenser et évaluer les pratiques agricoles qui stockent le carbone des sols, premier pas vers une agriculture à faible impact en Guyane. Cahiers Agricultures 29, 21. 2. Kato, M.S.A., Kato, O.R., Denich, M., Vlek, P.L.G., 1999. Fire-free alternatives to slash-and-burn for shifting cultivation in the eastern Amazon region: the role of fertilisers. Field Crops Research 62, 225–237.
Rotation of annual and perennial crops
The growing of alternating species of annual and perennial crops.
Cover crops
Non-harvested crop grown in between two main crop seasons, mainly intended to protect the structural aspects of soil fertility and reduce erosion
Temporary grassland in crop rotation
Land temporarily cultivated with herbaceous forage crops for mowing or pasture. A period of less than five years is used to differentiate between temporary and permanent meadows and pastures.
Rotation of annual crops
The growing of alternating species of annual crops, harvested and planted at each cultural cycle.
Permanent plant cover
Adapted from WOCAT Glossary
Maintenance of continuous plant cover; alternating crops and cover crops as a practice to improve soil quality and reduce diffuse agricultural water pollution.
Alley cropping
Cardinael, R., Umulisa, V., Toudert, A., Olivier, A., Bockel, L., Bernoux, M., 2018. Revisiting IPCC Tier 1 coefficients for soil organic and biomass carbon storage in agroforestry systems. Environmental Research Letters 13, 124020. Adapted from Nair, P.K.R., Kumar, B.M., Nair, V.D., 2009. Agroforestry as a strategy for carbon sequestration. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 172, 10–23.
Fast-growing, usually leguminous, woody species (mainly shrubs) grown in crop fields, usually at high densities. The woody species are regularly pruned and the prunings are applied as mulch into the alleys as a source of organic matter and nutrients. Usually found in tropical regions. Sometimes referred as ‘intercropping systems’.
Hedgerows
They consist of linear plantation around the fields. They include also shelterbelts, windbreaks and live fences.
Multistrata systems
Multistorey combinations of a large number of various trees at high density, and perennial and annual.
Fallows
Only sequential agroforestry system considered here. Include both improved and natural fallows.
Parklands
Intercropping of agricultural crops or grazing land under low density mature scattered trees. Typical of dry areas like Sahel (e.g. Faidherbia albida).
Shaded perennial-crop systems
Growing shade-tolerant species such as cacao and coffee under, or in between, overstorey shade trees thatcan be used for timber or other commercial tree products.
Silvo-arable systems
Woody species planted in parallel tree rows to allow mechanization and intercropped with an annual crop; usually used for timber (e.g. Juglans spp), but also for fuel (e.g. Populus spp). Usually low tree density per hectare. Usually found in temperate regions, but not exclusively.
Broadcast burning
Allowing a prescribed fire to burn over a designated area within well-defined boundaries for reduction of fuel hazard, as a silvicultural treatment, or both (term mainly used for slash burning).
Early burning
Prescribed burning early in the dry season before the leaves and undergrowth are completely dry or before the leaves are shed, as an insurance against more severe fire damage later on.
Shredded residues
Boulonne, L., 2011. DONESOL version 2.0.5. Dictionnaire de données pour les tables relatives aux données d’enquêtes agronomiques.
Shredded residues remaining on the soil surface.
Buried residues
Buried crop residues (often shredded before incorporation into the soil).
Burned residues
Crop residues burned on the field.
Mulched residues
Crop residues left in place, without special treatment.
Exported residues
Exported crop residues, cereal straw or harvested products.
Permanent soil cover
Maintenance of continuous soil cover thanks to crop residues
Shredded woody regrowths
Adapted from Courte, A., Cialdella, N., Muller, A., Blanfort, V., Bochu, J.-L., Brossard, M., 2020. Recenser et évaluer les pratiques agricoles qui stockent le carbone des sols, premier pas vers une agriculture à faible impact en Guyane. Cahiers Agricultures. 29, 21.
Shredded woody regrowths remaining on the soil surface.
Burned woody regrowths
Burned woody regrowths let on soil surface before the beginning of the crop season.
Exogenous organic matter
Marmo, L., Feix, I., Bourmeau, E., Amlinger, F., Bannick, C., De Neve, S., 2004. Reports of the Technical Working Groups Established Under the Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection. Volume-III. Organic Matter and Biodiversity. Taskgroup 4 on Exogenous Organic Matter. EUR 21319 EN/3. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
Exogenous organic matter (EOM) is all organic material of biological origin applied to the soil in order to fertilise, amend or restore it and improve the environment. It is closed to the term PRO in French, Produit Résiduaire organique. EOM include livestock manure, and organic mattters, treated or not, from agriculture, urban activities (e.g. sewage sludge, household waste), food industries (e.g. vinasse, feathers, dairy wastes), and other industries (e.g. paper sludge)
Organic inputs through night parks
Harris, F., 2002. Management of Manure in Farming Systems in Semi-arid West Africa. Experimental Agriculture 38, 131–148.
Temporary enclosure for confining cattle at night or for short period of time, also called corralling sites, are frequent in Sahel.
Late burning
Prescribed burning activities towards the end of the dry season.
Underburning
Prescribed burning with a low intensity fire in activity-created or natural fuels under a timber canopy.
Flooded paddy fields
Orasen, G., De Nisi, P., Lucchini, G., Abruzzese, A., Pesenti, M., Maghrebi, M., Kumar, A., Nocito, F.F., Baldoni, E., Morgutti, S., Negrini, N., Valè, G., Sacchi, G.A., 2019. Continuous Flooding or Alternate Wetting and Drying Differently Affect the Accumulation of Health-Promoting Phytochemicals and Minerals in Rice Brown Grain. Agronomy 9, 628. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9100628
Excluding a short period to allow weed control, constant pond water is maintained in the ﬁeld until the pre-harvest drainage.
Non-flooded paddy fields
Mi, W., Sun, Y., Zhao, C., Wu, L., 2019. Soil organic carbon and its labile fractions in paddy soil as influenced by water regimes and straw management. Agricultural Water Management 224, 105752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105752
Non-flooded paddy fields that could be moderately irrigated when the soil water content is below 80% of field capacity.
Alternate wetting and drying
1.International Rice Research Institute; 2. Hussain, S., Peng, S., Fahad, S., Khaliq, A., Huang, J., Cui, K., Nie, L., 2015. Rice management interventions to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions: a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22, 3342–3360.
1. Irrigation water is applied a few days after the disappearance of the ponded water. Hence, the field gets alternately flooded and non-flooded. The number of days of non-flooded soil between irrigation events can vary from 1 to more than 10 days depending on the number of factors such as soil type, weather, and crop growth stage. ; 2. Alternate wetting and drying is the periodic drying and reflooding of the rice field. In contrast to mid-season drainage, the time intervals between dry and wet conditions appear to be too short to facilitate the shift from aerobic to anaerobic soil conditions.
Mid-season drainage
Mid-season drainage encompasses a distinct period of interrupted irrigation during the crop growth phase. Usually a short-term drainage (5 – 20 days) is carried out before the maximum tiller number stage to prevent rank growth and to reduce the number of ineffectual tillers, and the duration is regulated by regionally determined conventional methods.
Controlled irrigation
Peng, S., Hou, H., Xu, J., Mao, Z., Abudu, S., Luo, Y., 2011. Nitrous oxide emissions from paddy fields under different water managements in southeast China. Paddy and Water Environment 9, 403–411.
During the rice-growing season, the soil in controlled irrigation paddy fields remains dry 60–80% of the time, and no standing water is found after the re-greening of rice seedlings.
Silvopastures
Cardinael, R., Umulisa, V., Toudert, A., Olivier, A., Bockel, L., Bernoux, M., 2018. Revisiting IPCC Tier 1 coefficients for soil organic and biomass carbon storage in agroforestry systems. Environmental Research Letters 13, 124020.
Woody species planted on permanent grasslands, often grazed.
Grazing management
Allen, V.G., Batello, C., Berretta, E.J., Hodgson, J., Kothmann, M., Li, X., McIvor, J., Milne, J., Morris, C., Peeters, A., Sanderson, M., 2011. An international terminology for grazing lands and grazing animals. Grass and Forage Science 66, 2–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.2010.00780.x
The manipulation of grazing in pursuit of a specific objective or set of objectives (Allen et al., 2011). Grazing management influences the carbon balance in grazing lands.
Coppice
European Environment Agency glossary; Félix, G.F., Scholberg, J.M.S., Clermont-Dauphin, C., Cournac, L., Tittonell, P., 2018. Enhancing agroecosystem productivity with woody perennials in semi-arid West Africa. A meta-analysis. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 38, 57.
Woodland which has been regenerated from shoots formed at the stumps of the previous crop trees, root suckers, or both, i.e., by vegetative means. Normally grown on a short rotation for small material, but sometimes, e.g. some eucalyptus species, to a substantial size. Native shrubs in arid lands can also be coppiced and residues used as organic amendment in cultivated systems as a mulch (Felix et al., 2018)
High forest
Ford-Robertson, F.C., 1971. Terminology of forest science, technology practice and products. Society of American Foresters. ; Lazdina, D., Makovskis, K., Kofman, P.D., Unrau, A., 2017. The EuroCoppice Glossary: Terms Definitions related to Coppice (COST Action FP1301 Reports). Freiburg, Germany: Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg.
A stand of trees, generally of seedling origin, that normally develop a high, closed canopy.
Coppice with standards
Burley, J., 2004. Encyclopedia of forest sciences. Academic Press.
A coppice system in which selected stems are retained as standards at each felling to form an uneven-aged overstorey which is removed selectively on a rotation constituting some multiple of the coppice rotation; a crop partly of vegetative and partly of seedling origin.
Pure stand
Schuck, A., Päivinen, R., Hytönen, T., Pajari, B., 2002. Compilation of forestry terms and definitions. European Forest Institute.
A stand in which a certain percentage, for instance at least 80%, of the trees in the main crown canopy consist of a single species.
Mixed stand
A stand or forest consisting of two or more tree species which influence significantly the stand ecology.
Broadleaved
Kosztra, B., Büttner, G., Hazeu, G., Arnold, S., 2017. Updated CLC illustrated nomenclature guidelines. European Environment Agency: Wien, Austria 1–124.
Vegetation formation composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understorey, where broad-leaved species predominate.
Coniferous
Vegetation formation composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understorey, where coniferous species predominate.
Mixed species
Vegetation formation composed principally of trees, including shrub and bush understorey, where neither broad-leaved nor coniferous species pre-dominate.
Harvest type
The harvest method planned at the stand scale
Harvest intensity
The harvest method at the tree scale, whether only the bole is removed or the other parts of the tree are also removed during harvest
Removal of forest residues
Mayer, M., Prescott, C.E., Abaker, W.E.A., Augusto, L., Cécillon, L., Ferreira, G.W.D., James, J., Jandl, R., Katzensteiner, K., Laclau, J.-P., Laganière, J., Nouvellon, Y., Paré, D., Stanturf, J.A., Vanguelova, E.I., Vesterdal, L., 2020. Tamm Review: Influence of forest management activities on soil organic carbon stocks: A knowledge synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management 466, 118127.
Forest harvest residues are a mixture of tree components with a low merchantable value that are left on-site after harvesting. Harvest residues consist of leaves/needles, branches, twigs, low-quality or small diameter stems, bark, dead wood and roots.
Removal of litter and biomass for fodder and/or fuel
Collection of dead leaf biomass (litter raking) or fuelwood in forests or other wooded lands.
From agricultural activities
Exogenous organic matter coming from livestock excreta and/or plant residues.
From industrial and urban activities
Exogenous organic matter coming from food or other industries, and from urban wastes, composts, and sewage systems.
From other origin
Exogenous organic matters that are not by-products from industrial, urban, and agricultural activities
Night tethering
Landais, E., Lhoste, P., 1993. Systèmes d’élevage et transfert de fertilité dans la zone des savanes africaines. 2 : les systèmes de gestion de la fumure animale et leur insertion dans les relations entre l’élevage et l’agriculture. Cahiers Agricultures 2, 9–25.
This system consists of immobilising animals overnight on plots after harvest or in the rainy season on fallow land. The system imply to tie animals by the horns to a stake, a tree or a tree trunk. The whole system is transferred from one plot to another or in another place in the same plot at a variable rate (from a few days to a maximum of a fortnight). The objective is to optimize the grass ressource and the excrement and urine distribution at the scale of the farming system.
Mobile night penning
The animals are kept in small enclosures made of thorny plants in cultivated plots during the agricultural off-season or in areas just cleared for cultivation.
Extensive grazing management
Grazing management that uses relatively large land areas per animal and a relatively low level of labour, resources or capital.
Intensive grazing management
Grazing management that uses relatively high levels of labour, resources or capital to increase production per unit area or per animal, through a relative increase in stocking rates, grazing pressure and forage utilization.
Other origin
Uneven-aged high forest
High forest in which there is a mixture of different age classes. Usually, the trees can not be separated in different storeys.
Uneven-aged and mixed high forest
High forest in which there is a mixture of different age classes and different species.
Even-aged high forest
High forest in which the predominant proportion of the trees falls into the same age class, generally resulting in a single storey forest.
Selection cut
A tree removal method that involves periodic cutting of selected trunks from all merchandable diameter classes. The method is mostly used in an uneven-aged forest.
Seed tree method
A tree removal method whereby the entire stand is removed in a final cutting except for selected single trees or seed trees in small groups to provide the seed for reproduction.
Thinning
Glossary of forestry terms, Maryland Department of Natural Resources
A partial cut in an immature, overstocked stand of trees used to increase the stand's value growth by concentrating on individuals with the best potential.
Salvage logging
European Parliament, 2013. DECISION No 529/2013/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL
Any harvesting activity consisting of recovering timber that can still be used, at least in part, from lands affected by natural disturbances.
Clearcut
Adapted from Glossary of forestry terms, Maryland Department of Natural Resources
The harvest of all the tree trunks in an area. Clearcutting is used to aid species whose seedlings require full sunlight to grow well.
Shelterwood method
A tree removal method in which mature trees are removed in a series of cuttings, enabling a new crop to establish under the partial shelter of the old trees from which the seed for regeneration is obtained. The regeneration may also be done artificially.
Whole tree harvest
James, J., Harrison, R., 2016. The Effect of Harvest on Forest Soil Carbon: A Meta-Analysis. Forests 7, 308.
The tops, limbs, and foliage are removed in addition to the bole.
Bole only harvest
Only the merchandable bole (stem) are removed from the site.
EOM coming from livestock excreta and/or plant residues.
EOM that are not by-products from industrial, urban, and agricultural activities
Slurry
Slurry is manure in liquid form, a mixture of liquid and solid animal excreta, with or without dilution with water and/or small amount of litter.
Compost
Compost is a mixture of decaying organic substrates, such as from leaves and manure, used to improve soil structure and provide nutrients. Alternatively, it refers to organic substrates subjected to biological decomposition and stabilization and converted into a final product that is stable, free of pathogens and plant seeds, and can be beneficially applied to land.
Solid manure
Solid/farmyard manure is a mixture of solid excreta of domestic animals with or without litter used for their bedding, possibly including a small amount of urine.
Liquid manure
Liquid manure is urine from domestic animals, possibly including a small amount of excrement and/or water.
Sewage sludge
Adapted from FAO. 2019. International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of fertilisers. Rome.
Solid materials removed from wastewater stream originating from a public sewage system. May or may not be subjected to additional treatment to reduce volume, pathogens, odors and nutrient content that can cause eutophication of water bodies when in excess in the environment
Industrial sludge
Sludge from treatment plants that separately collect urban waste water and waste water produced by industries.
Digestate
Adapted from Landmark glossary
Liquid or solid residues produced by fermentation of biomass (anaerobic digestion) in a biogas plant (anaerobic digester).
Bio-fertiliser
FAO. 2019. International Code of Conduct for the Sustainable Use and Management of fertilisers. Rome.
A broad term used for products containing living or dormant microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and algae, alone or in combination, which on application help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen or solubilize and mobilize soil nutrients. Examples Rhizobium (N fixation), Blue green algae (N fixation in rice production), P-solubilizing microorganisms (strains from bacterial genera (e.g., Bacillus, Pseudomonas), fungal genera (Penicillium and Aspergillus), or arbuscular mycorrhizae).
Composted sewage sludge
Composted sewage sludge from urban or industrial waste water treatment plants.
Limed sewage sludge
Limed sewage sludge from urban or industrial waste water treatment plants.
Urban composts
Urban or industrial organic wastes after having undergone composting.
Household wastes
Products form the household wastes collection.
Solid materials removed from wastewater strem originating from a public sewage system. May or may not be subject to additional treatment to reduce volume, pathogens, odors and nutrient content.